History of Warfare - Introduction

War is a constant part of the human experience, predating even civilization itself, and mastery of the military arts was a prerequisite for the survival of any society. Even the most advanced and seemingly permanent civilizations risked extinction if they failed to adapt to new military challenges.

The great questions of history are often decided on the battlefield; military victory or defeat often dictates history’s course.

The survival and therefore the accomplishments of ancient peoples such as the Egyptians, Hittites, or Mycenean Greeks were ultimately based on their military prowess; their failure to adapt to new technologies and new tactics led to their destruction.

 The success of the Persians in conquering and holding a vast empire was due largely to their superior army. The development of a unique military system in the Greek city-states, however, ensured that they were able to defend themselves against two Persian invasions. The preservation of Greek freedom meant not only the survival of democracy but also the development of the great Classical or Golden Age of cultural achievement.

The Persian Empire would later fall when it proved incapable of dealing with the military threat posed by the invasion of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great.

Ultimately, no army could compare to that of Rome, which would conquer and rule the Mediterranean for six centuries. Yet, at the end of antiquity, even the Roman army faltered; despite the reform efforts of Diocletian and other emperors, the army’s inability to defend against the massive invasions of German tribes led to the fall of the western empire, the almost total disappearance of Roman civilization, and the beginning of a new Dark Age.

 To understand ancient history, it is necessary to understand the role of warfare in antiquity. Therefore, the purpose of this articles is to provide an introduction to the study of warfare in the ancient world, from the first clash of bronze weapons on bronze armor down through the fall of the Roman Empire.

 End of Part One

PART 2 :

War in the Bronze Age - THE CHARIOT REVOLUTION

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War in the Bronze Age - THE CHARIOT REVOLUTION

THE CHARIOT REVOLUTION

 The early periods of Egyptian history (Dynastic, Old and Middle Kingdoms)

were characterized by peace, prosperity, and pyramids.

The Mediterranean to the north, the desert to east and west, and the jungles and cataracts to the south provided Egypt with natural protection from the outside world. From the emergence of Egyptian civilizationin 3100 B.C.E. to the end of the Middle Kingdom, around 1652, Egypt not only enjoyed (mostly) internal peace and stability but also suffered no invasions. This period of security from outside attack is almost unprecedented in human history; possibly only the Japanese, who were safe from the time of the first emperor Jimmu in 660 B.C.E.until World War II, can boast a greater such period. It is no wonder that Egyptians believed themselves to be blessed by their gods.  Unfortunately, in history, all good things must come to an end. In 1652, for the first time in 1,500 years, an invader attacked and conquered Egypt.

According to an Egyptian chronicler, “For what cause I do not know a blast of the gods smote us unexpectedly from the east. Asiatic invaders marched against our land. Their race was called HYKSOS.”

 The Hyksos (“Shepard-Kings”) were a Semetic speaking people who came from Palestine to the northeast. Like most pastoralist peoples in history, they had no permanent homes, nor did they practice agriculture. Instead, almost everything they needed they took from their animals: milk, food, clothing, the tents they lived in, even the alcohol they drank. They were constantly on the move from one place to another, searching for land on which their animals could graze. Pastoralists had little in the way of art, nor were they literate.

However, these peoples usually excelled at war and in military technology. The Hyksos were no exception, possessing a number of military advantages over the seemingly more civilized Egyptians. The Hyksos brought with them the composite bow made of wood and horn layered together through lamination and bound with sinew that gave it a huge advantage in distance,power, and accuracy. They wore bronze body armor (the Egyptianshad no armor at all), and they had developed a much lighter shield, which left them less encumbered than their Egyptian foes, whose shields weighed them down. Last, the Hyksos introduced into Egypt the most significant military weapon of the Bronze Age: the chariot. Chariots had been around for centuries, but it was not until the 1600s B.C.E. that they became important militarily due to numerous innovations and improvements. The new chariot was made of light wood, with a leather platform to carry two men. It was pulled by two horses wearing new harnesses that allowed them to pull heavier loads faster without the risk of choking. New spoked wheels, rather than the old solid wheels, were also vital to the chariot’s development; they were far lighter and sturdier. These chariots were therefore more durable and, weighing only about 60 pounds, could now travel much faster, about 10 miles per hour. One of the men in the chariot was the driver; the other man, who was tied to the chariot to keep his hands free, did the fighting. He was equipped with the composite bow, and the chariot carried a quiver with maybe as many as 80 arrows.

Chariot armies had a huge advantage over infantry forces, using their superior speed and mobility to move quickly around the battlefield, firing their arrows at stationary targets while moving fast enough to avoid the incoming missiles of their enemies. Foot soldiers still participated in battles, especially on lands unsuitable for chariots or in defending or besieging cities or camps. They also served as support troops for the chariot teams both in and out of battle. However, it was the chariots that decided the major battles of the period. Typically, chariot armies would spread out in long lines across a suitably flat and wide battlefield. There was significant space between each chariot in front, in back, and on the flanks to provide plenty of room to maneuver. When the two armies engaged, chariot teams did not simply crash into each other, as horses avoid an actual, physical collision if at all possible. Instead, the chariot teams would move toward an enemy force and in many cases pass completely through the numerous gaps in the opposing line, or, if this avenue was not available, they might turn back or move along the front of an enemy formation. If one side did not break after the first charge, a second charge, this time from the opposite direction, might be necessary. At some point, when one army had suffered significant casualties and panic began to spread among its ranks, some chariot teams would lose heart and begin to retreat either in an orderly fashion or in headlong flight, seeking a secure refuge. The chariot force that remained together on the field could then claim the victory.

 In 1652 B.C., the introduction of these new weapons hit Egypt like a thunderbolt as the Hyksos conquered all of Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta bordering the Mediterranean) and Upper Egypt (the region further south along the Nile) as far as Abydus. The Hyksos established their capital at Avaris (Tanis), in the Nile Delta. Their rule was known as the Second Intermediate Period, and their kings constituted Egypt’s Dynasties XV and XVI. At the same time, the Hyksos were establishing their rule in the north; the kingdom of Kush (Nubia), to the south, took advantage of Egyptian weakness and regained its independence. Kush also took control of much of the upper reaches of the Nile, ruling as far north as Elephantine and the First Cataract.

 This period marked the nadir of Bronze Age Egypt. Only a small part of the Nile remained free, as Egyptians controlled only the first eight nomes (administrative districts) of Upper Egypt from Abydus to Elephantine, with a capital at Karnak (Thebes). This part of free Egypt was ruled by Dynasty XVII, established by Rahotep. Rahotep and his successors kept the traditions of the Old and Middle Kingdoms alive in education, in religion, and even in the building of pyramids. However, the wealth and power of Dynasty XVII pharaohs were greatly diminished; their pyramids were made of mud.  Egyptian humiliation would last for nearly a century, until the pharaoh Sekenre Ta’a II, “The Brave”, decided he could no longer endure the national humiliation of foreign occupation of north and south: “I should like to know why I, an Egyptian pharaoh, sit united with an Asiatic and a Nubian?”

 He rebelled, breaking the uneasy peace that had existed in Egypt since the days of the conquest. The revolt began with an attack on the Hyksos and their king, Apophis I. Unfortunately, Sekenre Ta’a was killed in battle. His tomb and mummy have been found; his face, neck, and head were crushed by a Hyksos battle-axe. His cause was carried on by his two sons, first by Kamose (r. 1570–1567). He was inspired not only by patriotism but also by the personal desire to avenge his father. Kamose reorganized the Egyptian army; specifically, he adopted Hyksos technology: bronze body armor, the lightweight shield, the composite bow, and, most notably, the chariot. After this reorganization, Kamose was able to dramatically expand the territory held by the Egyptians north to the Nile Delta and south to Buhen

 In 1567 B.C., Kamose, like his father before him, was killed in battle, and the task of liberating Egypt fell to his younger brother, Ahmose I (r. 1567–1542).

He was only 10 years old when he ascended the throne, so it was not until 1557 that he attacked. His first target was the Hyksos, and, using his brother’s new army, he recaptured Memphis (Egypt’s ancient capital),Avaris (the Hyksos capital), and, last, Sharuhen, the final city in Egypt still occupied by the Hyksos. The Hyksos were driven out, and their last king, Apophis III, was killed. After defeating the Hyksos, Ahmose moved south to attack Kush. He was successful there, as well, driving the Nubians from Buhen to the Third Cataract.

 For both wars, we have a remarkable eyewitness account: a soldier from Ahmose’s army inscribed his battle experiences on his tomb. His name was also Ahmose, the son of Ibana(his mother) and Baba (his father). He wrote: I was taken by boat, the Northern, because I was brave and I accompanied the pharaoh, life and health be upon him, into battle and fought bravely in the pharaoh’s presence. Avaris was sacked and I was rewarded with gold and four slaves, one man and three women. After his majesty had slain the Asiatics, he sailed south to destroy the Nubian bowmen. The Nubian king met his doom, the gods of Egypt took him, and the pharaoh carried him off into captivity. His majesty made a great slaughter amongst the Nubians and I came away with gold, four slaves, and three hands [the cutting off and taking of hands of enemies killed in battle was a sign of bravery in battle and proof of the enemies a soldier had killed]. Pharaoh returned to Karnak, his heart rejoicing in valor and victory. He had conquered both the Northerners and the Southerners.

By 1551 B.C.,  Ahmose had liberated Egypt after more than a century of foreign rule and national humiliation. Ahmose I was the first king of Dynasty XVIII (1551–1295), and his victories inaugurated the New Kingdom, which would mark the final, dazzling epoch of ancient Egyptian civilization.

End of part 2

History of Warfare - Introduction Part 1

Stay tuned for  PART 3 -  WARRIOR PHARAOHS AND THE EGYPTIAN EMPIRE, 1551–1213

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Linear B

We do know that it was Greeks who took over Crete in 1450 BC because of the work

of Michael Ventris, an amateur linguist and cryptographer, in the 1950s. 

 Minoans had devised a writing system made up of linear signs incised

on clay tablets, which they used to keep palace records.

Minoan palace

 The archaeologist Arthur Evans had discovered a few tablets with this script at Knossos, but he also found 3,000 clay tablets inscribed with a more elaborate version of the linear script, which he named “Linear B” to differentiate it from the earlier “Linear A” script.

Linear  „B“

He assumed without question that the language of both was Cretan (Minoans).

The discovery in 1939 of an archive room full of Linear B tablets in the Mycenaean palace of Pylos on theGreek mainland seemed to strengthen Evans’ theory that mainland Greece had been controlled by the Minoans throughout the Late Bronze Age.

Palace at Pylos, reconstruction

Ventris, however, demonstrated that the language of the Linear B tablets was not in fact Cretan, but an early form of Greek. Having more than four thousand tablets to work with, he and other linguists were able gradually to obtain the phonetic values of the signs. For example, a combination of three signs—  ti-ri-po—yields the syllabic equivalent of the Greek word tripous, “tripod.” 
Today, the Linear B inscriptions have given up most of their secrets. Despite some successes, however, Linear A, the script of the unknown Cretan language, has not yet been deciphered.

The decoding of Linear B has illuminated not only the historical relationship between Greece and Crete, but also the workings of the Mycenaean palace system.

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Athena

Athena’s name probably comes from the city of Athens and not the other way

around. In a Linear B tablet from Knossos, we hear of the Potnia (Mistress) of

At(h)ana, and there is a consensus that Athena was in origin a Minoan or

Mycenaean deity, perhaps identical with the shield goddess who appears on

a painted tablet at Mycenae itself.

 As a warrior goddess who protected the  king and citadel, this Mistress had parallels in the Near East (Ishtar,Anat)  and Egypt (Neith). Still, the exact relationship between the Bronze Age goddess and the Athena of the Classical Greeks is unclear, for gaps and inconsistencies in the archaeological evidence mean that we cannot demonstrate  continuity of worship. Athena’s sanctuaries and temples are very often to be found at the city center, particularly on fortified heights like the Athenian  Akropolis. In Greek towns of the early Iron Age, her dwelling place was often  juxtaposed to that of the local chieftain or king; later she championed the polis with its varied forms of government. She presided over the arts of war, such as the taming of horses, the training of warriors, and the building of ships. As a goddess of crafts, particularly weaving and metalworking, she evokes the palace economies of the Bronze Age.

MORE TO COME SO STAY TUNED @ http://www.triond.com/users/celeres


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Apollodorus the library of Greek mythology

Here I would like to present you Apollodurs the Library.

I tend to cover  not only archaeological "news" that tell us about history of our planet, but also works from the ancient times that were made and read by the ancients.

Works like that and survived till our days so you could have insight into their world with their own eyes, as they saw it and understand it.

Apollodorus is such work were you can see how the ancient Greeks saw the world around them and how they used stories about heroes and Gods to explain that same world they lived in.

The only work of its kind to survive from classical antiquity, the Library of Apolodorus is a unique guide to Greek mythology, from the origins of the universe to the Trojan War.

The only work of its kind to survive from classical antiquity, the Library of Apolodorus is a unique guide to Greek mythology, from the origins oft he universe to the Trojan War.

Apollodorus’ Library has been an invaluable source book for early Greek myths from the time of its compilation in the first/second century AD to the present, influencing writers from the scolars of Byzantium to Robert Graves. It provides a complete history of Greek myth, telling the story of each of the families of heroic mythology and the various adventures associated with the main heroes and heroines, from Jason and Perseus to Heracles an Helen fo Troy. As a primary source for Greek myth, as a reference work, and as an introduction of hoe the Greeks themselves viewed their mythical traditions, the Library indispensable to anyone who has an interest in classical mythology.

APOLLODORUS is the name traditionally ascribed to the author of the Library. Although he was formely identified as Apollodorus of Athens, a distinguished Alexandrian scholar of the second century BC, it is now recognized that the Library must have been written at a later period, probably the first or second century AD. It is not know wheter Apollodorus was the author’s true name; in any case we know nothing about him...................................

CONTINUE READING: http://bookstove.com/book-talk/greek-mythology-apollodorus-library/#ixzz1HLK43M8l

Neanderthals used fire as far back as 400,000 years ago

The extent to which Neanderthals used fire has been a heated debate for years, but a new study involving the University of Colorado suggests that Neanderthals had controlled use of fire dating back as far as 400,000 years ago.

"We do not know how they were making fire, but they were apparently quite capable of doing it at will," said Paola Villa, a curator at the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History, who co-authored a paper on the new evidence with professor Wil Roebroeks of Leiden University in the Netherlands.

Villa and Roebroeks' paper was published in the Monday issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Neanderthals lived in the western parts of Eurasia between 400,000 and 35,000 years ago, subsisting mainly by hunting medium- to large-sized mammals, including horses, deer, rhinos and elephants, depending on location.

"They were proficient hunters of large game," Roebroeks said in an e-mail. "The plant part of their diet does not fossilize that easily, but we do know that they also consumed -- and cooked, as shown by a recent study -- vegetable materials."

Archaeologists believe that an understanding of fire is one of the Neanderthals' greatest technological advancements, along with stone tool manufacturing.

"It shows that Neanderthals were a bit more sophisticated than many scholars assumed them to be," Roebroeks said.
Concentrations of charcoal, heated stone artifacts, burned bones and heated sediments indicate evidence of what researchers refer to as a "fireplace" in Neanderthal and other archaeological excavation sites. Those sites with at least two of these characteristics indicate the inhabitants' use of fire.

While evidence of fireplaces does not necessarily mean that Neanderthals were cooking their food, consideration of cooked plants in their dental remnants does. Villa believes that it's safe to then assume that they were also cooking meat.

Controversy arises, however, with consideration of Villa and Roebroeks' timeline. Researchers have long believed that the Neanderthals' predecessors migrated into Europe roughly 1.2 million years ago. This means, if Villa and Roebroeks are correct, that they did so without a habitual control of fire. Until now, it had been assumed that fire was necessary for early humans to withstand Europe's colder temperatures.

But Villa is confident in her and Roebroeks' analysis because sites dating back more than 400,000 years, before the time of Neanderthals, show no evidence of fire. It is only after the appearance of Neanderthals that evidence of fire in Europe significantly increases.
Villa refers to an excavation site where inhabitants used a low-grade coal they had collected from 8 kilometers away as evidence that these individuals knew what materials could be used for fuel.

"To me it's quite good proof that they knew how to make fire, even though we don't have direct evidence," she said.

Even more telling, researchers have found similar evidence of cooked plants in areas as distant from each other as Iraq and Belgium, indicating that fire technology spanned wide regions.
"This means that people were transmitting this knowledge to other groups," Villa said, acknowledging that the information likely took an extended period of time to travel.
"These people were not complex societies (with) roads or anything ... Clearly, communication moved with people."


Read more:CU researcher: Neanderthals used fire as far back as 400,000 years ago - Boulder Daily Camerahttp://www.dailycamera.com/ci_17636850?source=rss#ixzz1HE6J4Onr
DailyCamera.com

From ape to Neanderthal