Homo Sapiens Long Distance Running Ability

In a recently publishes article in the Journal of Human Evolution  (LINK) authors claim that  Neandertals, compared to people today, had tall heel bones that put a less energy-efficient spring in their steps while running. 

As you can see from the article above it's a great step foward better understanding of what eventually caused Neanderthal to "die out" and us to be on the top of the animal world and only hominid specie to survive. But it's just a small fragment of the story we try to uncover. Like what Richard Bradley once said: Keep at it long enough and something is bound to turn up. When we have "enough" facts their meaning will become evident; in otherwords, data precede and lead to theory. 

So to follow R. Bradley thought I want to add something to the story. That is work of P. Jones (2005) and some other authors Dietrich and McDaniel (2004) Sands and Sands (2009) and it's implications on the article we talked above. 

The uniquely human activity of long-distance running produces enhanced release of endorphins, extending the capacities of such extreme physical activity that was adaptive in flight from predators with the pain-numbing effects, facilitating the ability to continue to flee rather than succumb to pain, muscle cramps, shortness of breath, and so on.

A natural basis for inducing ASC (altered state of consciousness) and mystical experiences derives from endurance running, long-distance running, and ultraruning (Bramble and Lieberman 2004; also see Jones 2005).

Commonly known as the “runner’s high,” it is also associated with features typical of mystical experiences such as positive emotions such as happiness, joy and elation; a sense of inner peacefulness and harmony; a sense of timelessness and cosmic unity; and a connection of oneself with nature and the Universe. The processes by which mystical experiences are induced by running begin with the saturation of the sympathetic-ergotropic system. In addition to the activation produced in many body systems by the running, the prolonged activity forces a kind of meditative breathing in the regular methodic inhalation and exhalation. Physical stress activated by long-distance running provokes the release of the opioid, adrenaline, and noradrenaline neurotransmitters, and elevated body temperatures, oxygen depletion, and chemical and neuronal imbalances that can create unusual state of awareness. Jones placed ultrarunninghigh in the context of the extreme activation of the ANS (isceral nervous system - controls our internal organs and glands, involuntary movement and actions). Extensive running leads to a saturation of the SNS( sympathetic nervous system) and associated structures of the hypothalamus and amygdala (particularly the left hemispheric), a “spillover” effect that leads to the simultaneous activation of the PNS and the amygdalaand hippocampus areas of the right hemisphere. This simultaneous activation of what are usually separate functions and areas of the brain results in a saturation of brain areas responsible for general orientation and attention, visual integration, emotional processing, and expression of verbal-conceptual phenomena (Jones, 44). 

This results from a general overload of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and associated structures (hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus) and leads to a cessation of normal attention, emotional processing, and comprehension. This cessation of normal processes produces a sense of ineffability and a disintegration of the self, which is generally experienced as a condition of profound peacefulness (Jones, 44). It is the shutdown of the normal processes of the mind that lead to these special experiences.Sands and Sands (2009) proposed that the selection for long-distance running in Homo subsequently selected for a form of spirituality, a “horizontal awareness,” or biophilia, that operated through existing neurobiological reward systems. The “high” associated with long-distance running situated our ancestors in a dynamic environment within which they felt an intimate connection with nature. They reviewed evidence showing that the neurochemicals released during endurance running are tied into a variety of preexisting reward pathways, including monoamines (serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine), endorphins, and endocannabinoids. There is evidence that running also releases serotonin and dopamine, both of which have positive effects on mood, enhance performance, and elicit our basic reward systems. Dietrich and McDaniel (2004) found that endurance runners have increases in an endocannabinoid, anandamide, a substance that produces psychoactive effects similar to the THC of marijuana, including euphoria, a sense of transcendence, and a sense of contact with the divine. Thus a side effect of the acquisition of the capacity for long-distance running was a variety of mystical experiences and associated pleasurable sensations. This running capacity also provided a physical basis for the ritual capabilities of dance, as well as the expressive capacities of mimesis.

Reference:

Jones, P. 2005. Ultrarunners and chance encounters with “absolute unitary being.”

Anthropology of Consciousness 15(2): 39–50.

Dietrich, A., and W. McDaniel. 2004. Endocannabinoids and exercise. British Journal of

Sports Medicine 38(5): 536–41.

Sands, R., and L. Sands, 2009. Running deep speculations on the evolution of running

and spirituality in Homo. Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture

34(4): 552–77

Barbarian Migrations of The Fourth and Fifth Centuries

The pressure from ‘barbarians’ (mostly Germans) which the Roman Empire had experienced from the late second century became more intense in the late fourth century. This Volkerwanderung (wandering of the peoples) involved unstable amalgams of diverse groups, many of whom settled gradually and relatively peacefully. The pressure of steppe nomads such as the Huns from c. 370 played a role, but probably more important were rivalries among the Germanic peoples, the formation of confederacies under aggressive  military leaders from the third century and the opportunities presented to booty hungry warleaders and their retinues by Rome’s political, military and financial weaknesses and the

increasing alienation of Roman provincials from centralized rule.

The first serious case of Germanic penetration occurred after 376, as Visigothic and  Ostrogothic tribes living beyond the Danube sought refuge as Roman allies  (foederati) within the empire. Tension led to the battle of Adrianople in which a largely  Visigothic  force defeated a Roman army and killed the emperor Valens. Although a treaty was soon arranged the Visigoths continued to ravage Greece and Illyricum until, in 402, they entered Italy under the leadership of Alaric. A cat-and-mouse game took place while the imperial government in Ravenna prevaricated in the face of Gothic demands for land and gold. 

Finally Alaric’s exasperation led to the sack of Rome in August 410—an enormous blow to

Roman morale. Alaric died soon afterwards and his brother-in-law Ataulf led the Goths to southern Gaul, where they were recognized as foederati by a treaty in 416. Under their kings Theodoric I and II and Euric, they built up a powerful state based on Toulouse which had generally good relations with the Roman aristocracy and established overlordship in Spain.

The German peoples who had remained north of the Danube (Heurules,Gepids, Rugi, Skiri and Ostrogoths)  became subjects of the Huns, who built up a tributary empire under Attila (434–53). While launching regular attacks on the east Roman provinces in the Balkans, Attila remained friendly with Aetius, the dominant force in the west, until he was induced to launch inconclusive raids into Gaul (checked by his defeat at Chalons in 451) and northern Italy. The collapse of the Hun empire following Attila’s death in 453 led to renewed pressure by Germanic bands (Ostrogoths, Rugi and others) on the Danube frontier.

Meanwhile northern Gaul had been thrown into confusion by the rupture of the Rhine frontier in late 406 by a mixed barbarian force dominated by Vandals, Suevi and Alans. While some Alans became Roman allies in Gaul, others joined the Vandal invasion of Spain in 409. The Suevi set up a robber kingdom based on Galicia which lasted until 585. In the face of Visigoth pressure the Vandals sailed to Africa in 429 and were granted the western provinces by a treaty of 435. Their able king, Geiseric, seized Carthage in 439, occupied the rest of Roman Africa and launched a series of lucrative naval raids, occupying Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica and sacking Rome in 455. Following his death in 477

the aggressive and confiscatory policies towards the Roman aristocracy and the Catholic Church gave way to a generally more conciliatory and  Romanizing  regime.

The collapse of the Rhine frontier in 406/7 had wide repercussions. Britain saw its Roman garrison withdrawn and the assumption of power by rival British chieftains until the Anglo Saxon invasions in the late 440s. The Burgundians were permitted to set up a kingdom on the upper Rhine in 413. Transferred as federates to the Jura/Lake Geneva area in 443, they built up a Romanized kingdom incorporating the Lyon and Vienne areas from 457. Along the middle and lower Rhine groups of Franks became powerful and attacked cities such as Cologne and Trier. In northern Gaul Roman rule was undermined by obscure rivalries between usurping generals, Bretons, peasant rebels (Bagaudae), Alans and the sub-Roman regimes of Aegidius and his son Syagrius based on Soissons (c. 456–86). The long-term beneficiary of this power vacuum was the Salian Frank dynasty of  Childeric (d. 481) and his son Clovis, who gradually expanded from their original centre of Tournai by conquering or allying themselves with rival bands of Franks, including established laeti (soldier-farmers).

End of Part 1

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ALSO READ:

Dionysus Cults

Aphrodite Cults

Apollo - Greek Deities

Neanderthals - Part One

Artemis' Cults

Barbarian Migrations of The Fourth and Fifth 

Teutonic Knights

History of Warfare - Introduction

War is a constant part of the human experience, predating even civilization itself, and mastery of the military arts was a prerequisite for the survival of any society. Even the most advanced and seemingly permanent civilizations risked extinction if they failed to adapt to new military challenges.

The great questions of history are often decided on the battlefield; military victory or defeat often dictates history’s course.

The survival and therefore the accomplishments of ancient peoples such as the Egyptians, Hittites, or Mycenean Greeks were ultimately based on their military prowess; their failure to adapt to new technologies and new tactics led to their destruction.

 The success of the Persians in conquering and holding a vast empire was due largely to their superior army. The development of a unique military system in the Greek city-states, however, ensured that they were able to defend themselves against two Persian invasions. The preservation of Greek freedom meant not only the survival of democracy but also the development of the great Classical or Golden Age of cultural achievement.

The Persian Empire would later fall when it proved incapable of dealing with the military threat posed by the invasion of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great.

Ultimately, no army could compare to that of Rome, which would conquer and rule the Mediterranean for six centuries. Yet, at the end of antiquity, even the Roman army faltered; despite the reform efforts of Diocletian and other emperors, the army’s inability to defend against the massive invasions of German tribes led to the fall of the western empire, the almost total disappearance of Roman civilization, and the beginning of a new Dark Age.

 To understand ancient history, it is necessary to understand the role of warfare in antiquity. Therefore, the purpose of this articles is to provide an introduction to the study of warfare in the ancient world, from the first clash of bronze weapons on bronze armor down through the fall of the Roman Empire.

 End of Part One

PART 2 :

War in the Bronze Age - THE CHARIOT REVOLUTION

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Aphrodite Cults

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Neanderthals - Part One

Artemis' Cults

Barbarian Migrations of The Fourth and Fifth 

Teutonic Knights

War in the Bronze Age - THE CHARIOT REVOLUTION

THE CHARIOT REVOLUTION

 The early periods of Egyptian history (Dynastic, Old and Middle Kingdoms)

were characterized by peace, prosperity, and pyramids.

The Mediterranean to the north, the desert to east and west, and the jungles and cataracts to the south provided Egypt with natural protection from the outside world. From the emergence of Egyptian civilizationin 3100 B.C.E. to the end of the Middle Kingdom, around 1652, Egypt not only enjoyed (mostly) internal peace and stability but also suffered no invasions. This period of security from outside attack is almost unprecedented in human history; possibly only the Japanese, who were safe from the time of the first emperor Jimmu in 660 B.C.E.until World War II, can boast a greater such period. It is no wonder that Egyptians believed themselves to be blessed by their gods.  Unfortunately, in history, all good things must come to an end. In 1652, for the first time in 1,500 years, an invader attacked and conquered Egypt.

According to an Egyptian chronicler, “For what cause I do not know a blast of the gods smote us unexpectedly from the east. Asiatic invaders marched against our land. Their race was called HYKSOS.”

 The Hyksos (“Shepard-Kings”) were a Semetic speaking people who came from Palestine to the northeast. Like most pastoralist peoples in history, they had no permanent homes, nor did they practice agriculture. Instead, almost everything they needed they took from their animals: milk, food, clothing, the tents they lived in, even the alcohol they drank. They were constantly on the move from one place to another, searching for land on which their animals could graze. Pastoralists had little in the way of art, nor were they literate.

However, these peoples usually excelled at war and in military technology. The Hyksos were no exception, possessing a number of military advantages over the seemingly more civilized Egyptians. The Hyksos brought with them the composite bow made of wood and horn layered together through lamination and bound with sinew that gave it a huge advantage in distance,power, and accuracy. They wore bronze body armor (the Egyptianshad no armor at all), and they had developed a much lighter shield, which left them less encumbered than their Egyptian foes, whose shields weighed them down. Last, the Hyksos introduced into Egypt the most significant military weapon of the Bronze Age: the chariot. Chariots had been around for centuries, but it was not until the 1600s B.C.E. that they became important militarily due to numerous innovations and improvements. The new chariot was made of light wood, with a leather platform to carry two men. It was pulled by two horses wearing new harnesses that allowed them to pull heavier loads faster without the risk of choking. New spoked wheels, rather than the old solid wheels, were also vital to the chariot’s development; they were far lighter and sturdier. These chariots were therefore more durable and, weighing only about 60 pounds, could now travel much faster, about 10 miles per hour. One of the men in the chariot was the driver; the other man, who was tied to the chariot to keep his hands free, did the fighting. He was equipped with the composite bow, and the chariot carried a quiver with maybe as many as 80 arrows.

Chariot armies had a huge advantage over infantry forces, using their superior speed and mobility to move quickly around the battlefield, firing their arrows at stationary targets while moving fast enough to avoid the incoming missiles of their enemies. Foot soldiers still participated in battles, especially on lands unsuitable for chariots or in defending or besieging cities or camps. They also served as support troops for the chariot teams both in and out of battle. However, it was the chariots that decided the major battles of the period. Typically, chariot armies would spread out in long lines across a suitably flat and wide battlefield. There was significant space between each chariot in front, in back, and on the flanks to provide plenty of room to maneuver. When the two armies engaged, chariot teams did not simply crash into each other, as horses avoid an actual, physical collision if at all possible. Instead, the chariot teams would move toward an enemy force and in many cases pass completely through the numerous gaps in the opposing line, or, if this avenue was not available, they might turn back or move along the front of an enemy formation. If one side did not break after the first charge, a second charge, this time from the opposite direction, might be necessary. At some point, when one army had suffered significant casualties and panic began to spread among its ranks, some chariot teams would lose heart and begin to retreat either in an orderly fashion or in headlong flight, seeking a secure refuge. The chariot force that remained together on the field could then claim the victory.

 In 1652 B.C., the introduction of these new weapons hit Egypt like a thunderbolt as the Hyksos conquered all of Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta bordering the Mediterranean) and Upper Egypt (the region further south along the Nile) as far as Abydus. The Hyksos established their capital at Avaris (Tanis), in the Nile Delta. Their rule was known as the Second Intermediate Period, and their kings constituted Egypt’s Dynasties XV and XVI. At the same time, the Hyksos were establishing their rule in the north; the kingdom of Kush (Nubia), to the south, took advantage of Egyptian weakness and regained its independence. Kush also took control of much of the upper reaches of the Nile, ruling as far north as Elephantine and the First Cataract.

 This period marked the nadir of Bronze Age Egypt. Only a small part of the Nile remained free, as Egyptians controlled only the first eight nomes (administrative districts) of Upper Egypt from Abydus to Elephantine, with a capital at Karnak (Thebes). This part of free Egypt was ruled by Dynasty XVII, established by Rahotep. Rahotep and his successors kept the traditions of the Old and Middle Kingdoms alive in education, in religion, and even in the building of pyramids. However, the wealth and power of Dynasty XVII pharaohs were greatly diminished; their pyramids were made of mud.  Egyptian humiliation would last for nearly a century, until the pharaoh Sekenre Ta’a II, “The Brave”, decided he could no longer endure the national humiliation of foreign occupation of north and south: “I should like to know why I, an Egyptian pharaoh, sit united with an Asiatic and a Nubian?”

 He rebelled, breaking the uneasy peace that had existed in Egypt since the days of the conquest. The revolt began with an attack on the Hyksos and their king, Apophis I. Unfortunately, Sekenre Ta’a was killed in battle. His tomb and mummy have been found; his face, neck, and head were crushed by a Hyksos battle-axe. His cause was carried on by his two sons, first by Kamose (r. 1570–1567). He was inspired not only by patriotism but also by the personal desire to avenge his father. Kamose reorganized the Egyptian army; specifically, he adopted Hyksos technology: bronze body armor, the lightweight shield, the composite bow, and, most notably, the chariot. After this reorganization, Kamose was able to dramatically expand the territory held by the Egyptians north to the Nile Delta and south to Buhen

 In 1567 B.C., Kamose, like his father before him, was killed in battle, and the task of liberating Egypt fell to his younger brother, Ahmose I (r. 1567–1542).

He was only 10 years old when he ascended the throne, so it was not until 1557 that he attacked. His first target was the Hyksos, and, using his brother’s new army, he recaptured Memphis (Egypt’s ancient capital),Avaris (the Hyksos capital), and, last, Sharuhen, the final city in Egypt still occupied by the Hyksos. The Hyksos were driven out, and their last king, Apophis III, was killed. After defeating the Hyksos, Ahmose moved south to attack Kush. He was successful there, as well, driving the Nubians from Buhen to the Third Cataract.

 For both wars, we have a remarkable eyewitness account: a soldier from Ahmose’s army inscribed his battle experiences on his tomb. His name was also Ahmose, the son of Ibana(his mother) and Baba (his father). He wrote: I was taken by boat, the Northern, because I was brave and I accompanied the pharaoh, life and health be upon him, into battle and fought bravely in the pharaoh’s presence. Avaris was sacked and I was rewarded with gold and four slaves, one man and three women. After his majesty had slain the Asiatics, he sailed south to destroy the Nubian bowmen. The Nubian king met his doom, the gods of Egypt took him, and the pharaoh carried him off into captivity. His majesty made a great slaughter amongst the Nubians and I came away with gold, four slaves, and three hands [the cutting off and taking of hands of enemies killed in battle was a sign of bravery in battle and proof of the enemies a soldier had killed]. Pharaoh returned to Karnak, his heart rejoicing in valor and victory. He had conquered both the Northerners and the Southerners.

By 1551 B.C.,  Ahmose had liberated Egypt after more than a century of foreign rule and national humiliation. Ahmose I was the first king of Dynasty XVIII (1551–1295), and his victories inaugurated the New Kingdom, which would mark the final, dazzling epoch of ancient Egyptian civilization.

End of part 2

History of Warfare - Introduction Part 1

Stay tuned for  PART 3 -  WARRIOR PHARAOHS AND THE EGYPTIAN EMPIRE, 1551–1213

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Aphrodite Cults

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Neanderthals - Part One

Artemis' Cults

Barbarian Migrations of The Fourth and Fifth 

Teutonic Knights

Linear B

We do know that it was Greeks who took over Crete in 1450 BC because of the work

of Michael Ventris, an amateur linguist and cryptographer, in the 1950s. 

 Minoans had devised a writing system made up of linear signs incised

on clay tablets, which they used to keep palace records.

Minoan palace

 The archaeologist Arthur Evans had discovered a few tablets with this script at Knossos, but he also found 3,000 clay tablets inscribed with a more elaborate version of the linear script, which he named “Linear B” to differentiate it from the earlier “Linear A” script.

Linear  „B“

He assumed without question that the language of both was Cretan (Minoans).

The discovery in 1939 of an archive room full of Linear B tablets in the Mycenaean palace of Pylos on theGreek mainland seemed to strengthen Evans’ theory that mainland Greece had been controlled by the Minoans throughout the Late Bronze Age.

Palace at Pylos, reconstruction

Ventris, however, demonstrated that the language of the Linear B tablets was not in fact Cretan, but an early form of Greek. Having more than four thousand tablets to work with, he and other linguists were able gradually to obtain the phonetic values of the signs. For example, a combination of three signs—  ti-ri-po—yields the syllabic equivalent of the Greek word tripous, “tripod.” 
Today, the Linear B inscriptions have given up most of their secrets. Despite some successes, however, Linear A, the script of the unknown Cretan language, has not yet been deciphered.

The decoding of Linear B has illuminated not only the historical relationship between Greece and Crete, but also the workings of the Mycenaean palace system.

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ALSO READ:

Dionysus Cults

Aphrodite Cults

Apollo - Greek Deities

Neanderthals - Part One

Artemis' Cults

Barbarian Migrations of The Fourth and Fifth 

Teutonic Knights

Athena

Athena’s name probably comes from the city of Athens and not the other way

around. In a Linear B tablet from Knossos, we hear of the Potnia (Mistress) of

At(h)ana, and there is a consensus that Athena was in origin a Minoan or

Mycenaean deity, perhaps identical with the shield goddess who appears on

a painted tablet at Mycenae itself.

 As a warrior goddess who protected the  king and citadel, this Mistress had parallels in the Near East (Ishtar,Anat)  and Egypt (Neith). Still, the exact relationship between the Bronze Age goddess and the Athena of the Classical Greeks is unclear, for gaps and inconsistencies in the archaeological evidence mean that we cannot demonstrate  continuity of worship. Athena’s sanctuaries and temples are very often to be found at the city center, particularly on fortified heights like the Athenian  Akropolis. In Greek towns of the early Iron Age, her dwelling place was often  juxtaposed to that of the local chieftain or king; later she championed the polis with its varied forms of government. She presided over the arts of war, such as the taming of horses, the training of warriors, and the building of ships. As a goddess of crafts, particularly weaving and metalworking, she evokes the palace economies of the Bronze Age.

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ALSO READ:
Dionysus Cults

Aphrodite Cults

Apollo - Greek Deities

Neanderthals - Part One

Artemis' Cults

Barbarian Migrations of The Fourth and Fifth 

Teutonic Knights

Apollodorus the library of Greek mythology

Here I would like to present you Apollodurs the Library.

I tend to cover  not only archaeological "news" that tell us about history of our planet, but also works from the ancient times that were made and read by the ancients.

Works like that and survived till our days so you could have insight into their world with their own eyes, as they saw it and understand it.

Apollodorus is such work were you can see how the ancient Greeks saw the world around them and how they used stories about heroes and Gods to explain that same world they lived in.

The only work of its kind to survive from classical antiquity, the Library of Apolodorus is a unique guide to Greek mythology, from the origins of the universe to the Trojan War.

The only work of its kind to survive from classical antiquity, the Library of Apolodorus is a unique guide to Greek mythology, from the origins oft he universe to the Trojan War.

Apollodorus’ Library has been an invaluable source book for early Greek myths from the time of its compilation in the first/second century AD to the present, influencing writers from the scolars of Byzantium to Robert Graves. It provides a complete history of Greek myth, telling the story of each of the families of heroic mythology and the various adventures associated with the main heroes and heroines, from Jason and Perseus to Heracles an Helen fo Troy. As a primary source for Greek myth, as a reference work, and as an introduction of hoe the Greeks themselves viewed their mythical traditions, the Library indispensable to anyone who has an interest in classical mythology.

APOLLODORUS is the name traditionally ascribed to the author of the Library. Although he was formely identified as Apollodorus of Athens, a distinguished Alexandrian scholar of the second century BC, it is now recognized that the Library must have been written at a later period, probably the first or second century AD. It is not know wheter Apollodorus was the author’s true name; in any case we know nothing about him...................................

CONTINUE READING: http://bookstove.com/book-talk/greek-mythology-apollodorus-library/#ixzz1HLK43M8l